1 


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ELEMENTS  OF  DESIGN 


Jit  JSi* 


FOR  THE  USE  OF  PARENTS  AND  TEACHERS. 


By  W.  RIMMER. 


REVISED  EDITION. 


BOSTON; 


LEE  AND  SHEPARD,  PUBLISHERS. 

NEW  YORK : 

CHARLES  T.  DILLINGHAM. 

1879. 


COPYRIGHT,  1879, 

By  W.  RIM'MER. 

All  rights  reserved. 


Franklin  Press: 
Electrotyped  and  Printed  by 
Randy  Avery,  & Co., 
Boston. 


CONTENTS. 


Introductory  Note 5 

Part  I.  — Vertical  Elements 9 

Part  II.  — Transverse  Elements .15 

Part  III.  — Skeleton  Limits 21 

Part  IV.  — Head 26 

Part  V.  — The  Ear 34 

Part  VI.  — Form 40 


INTRODUCTORY  NOTE. 

BY  J.  E.  CABOT. 


[These  prefatory  remarks  were  written  down  at  Dr.  Rimmer’s  request,  and 
are  now  printed  by  his  wish,  as  indicating  in  a general  way  his  intention  in 
the  treatise  of  which  this  volume  is  a part.] 

The  object  of  the  following  pages  is  to  exemplify  in  its  rudi- 
ments a method  of  teaching  to  draw,  which  is  founded  on 
the  idea  that  Drawing  does  not  signify  merely  an  imitation 
of  forms,  but  that  it  aims  mainly  to  reproduce  expression,  — 
the  effect  that  immediately  results  from  the  sight  of  the 
object,  and  seems  to  belong  to  it  primarily,  irrespective  of 
use,  association,  or  other  secondary  or  imparted  value.  Of 
course,  the  first  requisite  is  an  ability  to  feel  expression,  — a 
sense  for  the  dumb  language  of  lines  and  surfaces.  The  eye 
is  not  of  itself  enough  for  seeing,  any  more  than  the  hand  is 
enough  for  drawing. 

All  art,  from  the  most  rudimentary  attempts,  presupposes 
this  higher  sense  to  be  to  some  extent  awakened ; and  it  is 
to  the  interest  thus  created  that  it  appeals.  But  the  sense 
may  exist,  and  may  be  sufficiently  developed  to  be  recognized 
as  the  source  of  an  occasional  satisfaction  more  or  less  vivid, 
and  yet  remain  vague  and  dim,  like  the  vision  of  those  ani- 
mals whose  eyes  are  covered  by  a membrane  that  permits 

5 


6 


only  the  general  sensation  of  light,  ancl  perhaps  of  the  direc- 
tion whence  it  comes,  but  no  distinct  seeing.  This  is  the 
common  case.  In  the  absence  of  special  gifts,  and  of  train- 
ing, direct  or  indirect,  the  sense  of  natural  beauty  in  most 
persons  remains  dormant,  and  recovers  its  normal  action  only 
momentarily,  by  accident,  or  when  some  extraordinary  appeal 
is  made  to  it : so  that  what  should  be  a daily  refreshment,  as 
much  a part  of  every  man’s  life  as  his  meals  or  his  rest,  is 
regarded  as  an  exotic  luxury,  a superfluous  garnish,  not  as 
any  substantial  reality. 

But  Sight  is  the  noblest  of  the  senses.  Any  thing  that 
helps  to  perfect  it  really  enlarges  the  world  for  us ; for  what 
passes  unnoticed,  might,  as  far  as  we  are  concerned,  as  well 
not  exist.  It  is  the  cheapest  and  most  wholesome  of  pleas- 
ures, subject  to  no  drawback  or  impediment,  out  of  reach  of 
no  position  or  condition  of  life ; nor  need  the  amount  of  train- 
ing, which  is  of  the  most  general  importance,  be  difficult  of 
attainment  to  any  one  in  this  community.  Every  boy  and 
girl  of  healthy  taste  likes  to  learn  to  draw;  and  the  time  and 
means  necessary  could  be  found  for  all,  were  elementary  in- 
struction steadily  directed  to  what  is  essential,  and  freed 
from  unnecessary  complication  with  what  is  at  best  extra- 
neous. The  trouble  is,  that  Drawing,  with  pupils  and  with 
teachers,  too  often  means  picture-making,  — the  production 
by  any  means,  the  speedier  the  better,  of  something  that 
shall  be  thought  pretty  to  look  at ; a notion  tolerably  sure  to 
extinguish  any  ordinary  amount  of  ability.  The  short-cut 
to  picture-making  is  copying ; that  is,  the  substitution  of 
another  person’s  conception  and  rendering  of  expression  and 
effect,  at  the  fourth  or  the  hundredth  remove,  for  one’s  own  : 
and  the  result  is  necessarily  a vapid  mannerism  in  those  who 
are  content  passively  to  accept  what  is  put  before  them,  and 
weariness  and  disgust  to  the  stronger  natures  who  are 
vaguely  conscious  of  a capacity  for  something  more,  or,  at 


7 


least,  are  restless  under  a course  of  purposeless  trifling. 
Ability  to  draw,  is  ability,  first  of  all,  to  see  what  is  to  be 
drawn : not  by  any  means  all  the  lines  that  exist,  even  in  the 
simplest  subject,  but  only  those  that  tell  the  story ; that  fix 
the  form  for  what  it  is,  and  separate  it  from  what  it  is  not. 
The  acquisition  of  this  ability  is  not  furthered,  but  impeded, 
by  foregoing  all  occasion  for  its  exercise,  and  accepting  the 
result  at  second-hand. 

As  the  art  of  Drawing  is  primarily  the  art  of  seeing,  the 
main  point  is  rightly-directed  attention,  — an  attention  that 
knows  not  merely  what  to  see,  but  what  to  overlook  and 
omit.  The  skilful  eye  is  careful  of  hair’s  breadths,  and  care- 
less of  inches : follows  at  one  time  with  breathless  intentness 
the  minutest  curve  of  line  or  surface ; at  another  condenses, 
omits,  or  even  contradicts.  It  may  do  always  whatever  it 
has  reason  to  do. 

This  is  one  of  the  lessons  of  Greek  art.  The  Greek  sculp- 
ture cannot  be  defended  for  accuracy ; but  the  very  inaccu- 
racies more  strongly  emphasize  the  broad,  unerring  perception 
of  vital  truth. 

Thus  a systematic  instruction  in  the  elements  of  Drawing, 
so  far  from  being  useful  only  or  especially  to  the  artist,  is 
even  more  important  to  those  to  whom  it  is  only  a part  of 
general  culture.  Not  that  study  is  less  important  to  the 
artist,  but  that  his  nature  brings  with  it  a predetermination 
which  prevents  him  from  wasting  his  forces  upon  what  has  no 
existence  to  art.  To  others,  this  bias  must  be  supplied  by  a 
careful  training  of  the  attention  to  perceive  the  meaning  of 
forms  in  nature,  and  to  perceive  nothing  else ; to  omit  every 
line  in  which  no  meaning  is  seen.  There  can  be  no  harm  to 
any  one  in  this ; for,  whether  there  be  any  meaning  there  or 
not,  unless  it  is  instinctively  felt,  any  attempt  to  render  the 
form  will  only  falsify  it.  There  is  no  danger  that  mannerism 
will  be  the  result ; for  mannerism  comes  from  thoughtless 
repetition.  It  must  be  always  safe,  at  least,  to  be  silent. 


8 


Instruction  of  the  kind  here  proposed  must  seek,  first  of  all, 
to  avoid  confusion  of  aim.  The  greater  simplicity  it  can  give 
to  its  procedures,  the  more  unambitious  the  treatment,  and 
the  fewer  the  objects,  the  better.  To  this  end,  the  human 
form,  reduced  at  first  to  its  simplest  elements,  has  been  se- 
lected as  most  conveniently  illustrating  the  principles  here 
set  forth ; since  it  is  this,  which,  in  the  smallest  compass, 
contains  the  greatest  amount  and  variety  of  expression.  To 
it,  accordingly,  the  author  has,  at  the  outset,  confined  his 
examples.  What  he  offers  is  not  a new  set  of  patterns  to  be 
copied,  nor  a short-cut  to  the  drawing  of  the  human  figure, 
but  a contribution  towards  a method  of  teaching  that  shall 
apply  to  Drawing  the  same  fundamental  principle  univer- 
sally adopted  in  the  teaching  of  elementary  science ; not 
to  make  it  easy  by  making  it  insignificant,  but  by  making 
clear  the  essential  principles  at  the  outset,  and  holding  them 
fast  to  the  end ; onl}'-  rendering  access  easier  at  the  first  by 
reducing  them  to  their  simplest  and  most  rudimentary  expres- 
sion. In  short,  what  he  aims  at  is  a Drawing-primer ; and  he 
would  look  upon  it  as  the  best  proof  of  success,  should  it  find 
its  way,  with  the  reading-primer  and  the  first  lessons  in  arith- 
metic, into  the  hands  of  school-teachers  and  of  mothers,  for 
daily  use  as  a regular  part  of  elementary  instruction. 


ELEMENTS  OF  DESIGN. 


ELEMENTS  OF  DESIGN. 


PART  I. 

VERTICAL  ELEMENTS. 


Section  I.  — Single  Lines. 

The  teacher  must  explain  that  a stick  will  stand,  if 
balanced  on  one  end,  as  in  drawing  No.  1,  PI.  1 ; but 
that,  if  not  so  balanced,  it  will  fall,  as  in  No.  2,  unless 
another  stick  is  placed  in  front,  as  in  No.  3 ; and  that, 
the  farther  the  first  leans,  the  more  the  second  must 
lean  to  keep  it  up,  as  in  No.  4 ; that  the  upper  part,  a, 
must  be  called  the  body,  and  the  two  lower  parts,  A c, 
the  legs,  as  in  No.  5 ; that  the  legs  must  be  in  two 
pieces,  as  in  No.  6,  because  legs  are  in  two  pieces ; and 
that  these  pieces  can  bend  at  the  knee,  as  in  No.  7 ; 
and  then,  that  if  two  other  pieces  are  attached  near  the 
top  of  the  stick,  with  joints  in  them,  as  in  No.  8,  the 
stick  will  look  like  a man ; that  the  round  ball  on 
the  top  of  the  stick  must  be  called  the  head,  and  the 
part  between  that  and  the  shoulders  the  neck,  and  so 
on,  as  in  the  following  drawings  : — 


9 


10 


Then,  that  the  body,  thigh,  and  leg  sections  should  be 
of  equal  length.  The  reason  to  he  given  for  this 
should  be,  that  the  parts,  if  longer  or  shorter  relatively, 
would  not  look  so  well.  Then  a front  figure  should  be 
made,  F ; and  a side  figure,  G,  PL  2. 

The  heel  and  elbow  must  project  as  in  these  plans. 
To  make  the  subject  as  easy  as  possible  for  children,  in 
the  first  series  (that  is,  in  figures  made  with  single  lines), 
the  arms  and  legs  should  be  attached  at  once  to  the  mid- 
dle or  body  line,  as  in  figures  F and  G.  The  elbow 
should  reach  almost  to  the  hip  in  first  series  of  draw- 
ings ; and  the  hand,  h,  to  half  way  down  the  thigh. 
When  it  is  intended  that  a figure  should  walk,  both  feet 
should  be  kept  upon  the  ground.  The  reason  for  this  is, 
that,  when  walking,  we  only  step  (that  is,  extend  our 
limbs),  without  springing  from  the  ground,  not  lifting 
the  foot  behind  till  the  one  before  is  placed  in  readiness 
to  give  support ; and  licuce  the  moment  of  time  most 
favorable  for  representing  the  act,  and  the  only  one  in 
which  the  position  of  the  limbs  with  reference  to  the 
velocity  or  obliquity  of  the  falling  body  can  be  at  all 
described,  is  when  one  is  put  forward  for  support,  and 
the  other  is  still  extended  with  a propelling  effort. 

The  following  drawings  will  serve  to  illustrate  the 
point : — - 


11 


Section  II.,  PL  2.  — Degrees  of  Velocity. 

Let  it  be  observed,  that,  as  the  velocity  increases  (that 
is,  the  obliquity  of  the  body,  which  represents  it),  the 
legs  are  placed  farther  and  farther  apart  in  each  degree, 
— the  one  to  push  the  body  along,  and  the  other  to  keep 
it  from  falling ; and  that  besides,  in  walking,  the  foot 
pressed  forward  for  support  is  always  something  in  ad- 
vance of  the  hip,  as  seen  in  Plans  1,  2,  3,  4,  while  the 
extended  thigh  behind  is  on  a line  with  the  body ; and 
that  the  heel  (see  F and  G,  Section  1)  is  lifted  from  the 
ground,  as  in  Plan  H,  PI.  2, 

A,  the  hip  ; B,  the  heel  of  extended  foot ; C,  the 
toes,  continuing  the  propelling  effort ; D,  the  supporting 
foot ; E,  a vertical  line,  showing  that  the  latter  is  in  ad- 
vance of  the  hip ; F,  the  line  of  the  back  and  thigh. 

When  it  is  intended  to  describe  a figure  in  the  act  of 
running,  only  one  foot,  the  supporting  one,  should  be 
placed  upon  the  ground,  as  in  H a. 

As  walking  is  a gliding  effort  or  motion,  by  which  only 
as  much  ground  is  passed  over  as  can  be  compassed  by 
merely  extending  the  limbs  (as  in  Figs,  1,  2,  3,  4,  section 
second),  so  running  is  an  effort,  by  which  it  is  intended 
to  pass  over  more  ground  than  can  be  compassed  by  such 
mere  extension,  which,  from  the  nature  of  the  case,  can 
only  be  effected  by  springing  from  the  ground  ; and  the 
effort  or  discharge  of  the  body  from  the  extended  limb 
is  best  described  at  the  moment  when  that  limb  has  just 
completed  its  task,  and  throws  the  body  forward  on  to 
the  recovering  foot.  (See  Fig.  2,  1 to  5,  PI.  3.) 


The  positions  4 and  5 represent  sudden  and  hasty 
flight.  Practised  runners  try  to  preserve  an  upright 
position,  that  the  arms  may  he  kept  close  to  the  side, 
and  that  they  may  breathe  with  the  greatest  freedom 
possible. 

Vertical  Position. 

It  will  he  observed  in  the  running  figures  (1  to  5)  that 
the  heel  is  behind  the  hip,  and  that  the  thigh  of  the 
extended  leg  is  pressed  back  beyond  the  line  of  the  body. 
In  the  vertical  position  (6),  the  heel  is  before  the  hip. 

In  walking,  the  motion  is  best  described  to  the  eye 
when  both  feet  are  upon  the  ground  ; though,  for  the 
greater  part  of  the  time,  the  body  rests  upon  one  foot 
alone.  In  running,  the  motion  is  best  described  when 
one  foot  is  upon  the  ground,  though  for  much  of  the 
time  the  body  is  in  flight,  and  both  feet  are*  in  the  air ; 
and  after  running,  which  is  a continuous  effort,  and 
which  may,  like  walking,  be  indefinitely  prolonged, 
comes  leaping,  which  can  only  he  continued  for  a few 
moments  ; and  then  follows  jumping,  which  accomplishes 
all  and  exhausts  all  at  a single  bound.  Leaping  is  the 
same  as  running,  with  the  difference,  that  flic  body  is  so 
long  in  the  air  that  we  can  perceive  its  form  ; and,  while 
it  resembles  jumping  by  being  above  the  ground,  it  also 
resembles  running  in  the  position  of  the  limbs. 

Leaping,  I.,  PL  4. 

As  one  who  leaps  must  be  prepared  for  his  next  effort, 
his  limbs  must  be  held  ready  for  it ; but,  as  the  jumper 
cares  only  to  alight  with  safety,  he  tries  to  preserve  his 
poise  by  gathering  his  feet  beneath  him. 


13 


Section  III.,  PI.  4.  — Jumping. 

The  teacher  must  next  explain  that  a stick  will  stand 
not  only  when  balanced  on  one  end,  but  also  when  sup- 
ported. on  each  side,  as  in  the  next  illustration  (K  by  A 
and  B,  the  right  and  left  supports)  ; and,  further,  that 
the  body  may  be  bent  at  the  hips,  so  as  to  bring  the 
head  over  either  foot,  as  in  Figs.  1 and  2,  and  yet  main- 
tain an  upright  position,  because  the  weight  of  the  body 
is  within  the  line  of  support,  as  seen  in  the  following 
plan : — 

Plan  1. 

A,  the  bottom  of  the  box  or  parallelogram ; B,  the 
sides  ; C,  the  body  within  the  lines  of  support.  But 
if  the  body  is  bent  or  slanted  beyond  the  line  of  sup- 
port, then,  there  being  nothing  to  keep  it  up,  it  must 
come  to  the  ground,  as  shown  in 

Plan  2. 

A,  B,  C,  as  in  Plan  1 ; D,  a vertical  line,  showing 
that  the  weight  of  the  box  and  the  weight  of  the  man 
are  beyond  the  line  of  support. 

The  points  of  support  are  further  explained  in  the 
following  figure : — 

No.  1,  PI.  5,  a kneeling  figure  leaning  back,  making 
it  necessary  that  the  support  should  be  given  behind  ; 
A,  the  supporting  foot. 

No  2,  a figure  without  the  supporting  foot ; A,  B,  a 
vertical  line,  showing  that  the  weight  of  the  body  is 
beyond  the  line  of  support,  and  consequently  that  it 
could  not  maintain  an  upright  pbsition. 


14 


No.  3,  a dancing  figure : A,  the  point  of  support ; B, 
a vertical  line,  showing  that  the  body  is  within  that  line, 
and  can  stand  till  received  upon  the  other  point ; C, 
the  extended  foot. 

No.  4,  a creeping  figure;  the  support  divided  between 
the  hands  and  knees. 

No.  5,  a sitting  figure,  leaning  forward:  B,  the  stool, 
the  principal  point  of  support ; A,  the  foot  extended  to 
receive  the  leaning  body. 

No.  6,  the  same  position  of  body,  supported  by  the 
extension  of  one  arm  over  the  back  of  the  chair ; A, 
the  feet ; and  B,  the  leg  of  the  chair  beyond  the  line  of 
support,  C. 

No.  7,  a leaning  body,  supporting  itself  by  connecting 
the  weight  of  the  shoulders  on  one  side  of  the  line  A 
with  the  weight  of  the  leg  on  the  other  side  of  the  same 
line,  by  folding  the  hands  about  the  uplifted  knee,  and 
putting  the  toe  of  that  leg  behind  the  calf  of  the  one 
resting  upon  the  floor. 

Nos.  8,  9 : the  same  rule  will  apply  here  as  in  Figs.  1 
and  2 ; this  section,  A and  B,  being  the  right  and  left 
support. 

Bent  Bodies.  — No.  11,  PI.  5,  12,  13,  14,  PI.  G. 

Let  the  teacher  explain  the  action,  and  point  out  the 
points  of  support,  in  Figs.  10  to  15. 


PI.L 


i: 


I*. 


S ert ion . 


I A 

Fool.  O Fool . 


PL.  2 


Section  2*?  Degrees  ok  Ycloeity  — Walking. 


PI  .3. 


Section  3 * Running  - Degrees  of  Velocity. 


Vertia/l  See! ion 


* 


P1.4. 


Ii. 


PI.  5 


PI.  6, 


Jitmi  Jlodies 


Ab.  13 


JVb.  12 


Part,  2 ‘.!  Transverse  Elements 

Double  Lines . 

Section  l 


M.  14 


15 


PART  II. 

TRANSVERSE  ELEMENTS. 


Section  I.,  PL  6. — Double  Lines. 

Fig.  1.  Front  View.  — Fig.  2.  Side  View . 

No.  1.  Shoulders  or  clavicular  section. 

No.  2.  Breast-bone  or  sternum. 

No.  3.  Pelvic  section. 

No.  4.  First  rib. 

No.  5.  Toes. 

No.  6.  Spinal  column  or  back-bone. 

No.  7.  Hand. 

All  other  parts  as  in  single-line  drawings. 

The  arms  and  legs  in  double-line  drawings,  when  seen 
in  profile,  appear  to  spring  from  the  middle  or  body  line, 
as  in  single-line  drawings,  Part  I.  (see  figure  No.  2, 
Part  II.);  but  when  seen  in  front,  as  in  figure  No.  1, 
Part  II.,  are  separated  from  the  body,  the  arms  by  the 
clavicles,  and  the  legs  by  the  pelvis.  The  pelvis  is  im- 
movably attached  to  the  back-bone  ; and  its  position 
with  reference  to  it  cannot  be  altered  (see  Nos.  3 and 
4,  PI.  7). 


16 


"While  each  clavicle  (collar-bone)  may  be  lifted  at  the 
outer  end  (Fig.  5)  as  though  attached  to  the  sternum  by 
a hinge,  though  it  cannot  easily  be  depressed  below  a 
horizontal  line  (as  illustrated  in  No.  1,  PI.  6).  Figs.  5, 
6,  7,  PI.  7,  will  serve  to  show  the  action  of  the  parts. 

Fig.  5,  PI.  7.  A,  the  clavicle  lifted  as  when  the  arm 
is  raised  ; Fig.  6,  A A,  both  clavicles  lifted  as  when  both 
arms  are  raised  ; Fig.  7,  A,  the  clavicle  yielding  under 
the  weight  of  the  body  pressed  up  at  its  outer  end  by 
the  bone  of  the  arm. 

The  arms,  if  extended  horizontally,  may  be  made  to 
meet  in  front  of,  but  not  behind,  the  body. 

Fig.  8,  arms  extended  horizontally. 

Fig.  9,  arms  brought  together  in  front. 

But  if  the  arms  be  raised  hut  half  way  to  the  shoul- 
ders, then  the  hands  may  be  made  to  meet  behind  the 
back. 

Fig.  10,  PI.  8,  the  proper  elevation;  Fig.  11,  the 
hands  clasped  behind  ; Fig.  12,  the  arms  folded. 

When  a figure  is  to  stand  erect,  neither  leg  being  ex- 
tended, the  toes  should  turn  out  far  enough  to  bring  the 
heels  together ; which  in  life,  in  most  persons,  can  be 
effected  by  placing  the  great  toe  of  each  foot  upon  a line 
with  the  middle  of  each  thigh . and  as  this  is  the  natu- 
ral position  of  the  foot  with  reference  to  the  leg,  whether 
the  leg  be  extended  or  not,  the  foot,  when  not  restrained, 
should  always  be  so  placed  (see  Figs.  13  and  14). 

Fig.  14  shows  the  position  of  the  feet  in  step- 
ping- 

Fig.  15,  the  toes  turned  out  as  far  as  it  is  possible  to 
turn  them. 


17 


To  the  Teacher. 

In  these  double-line  figures,  which,  like  those  in  sin- 
gle lines,  are  intended  to  illustrate  certain  principles  in 
nature,  there  are  four  nearly  equal  elements,  — the  width 
of  the  shoulders  ; the  length  of  the  body  from  the  top 
of  the  sternum  to  top  of  the  pubis  ; the  thigh  from  the 
head  of  the  femur,  or  hip-joint,  to  the  middle  of  the 
knee-pan ; and  the  lower  leg,  or  tibial  section,  from 
the  middle  of  the  knee-pan  to  the  ground.  This  pro- 
portion, as  in  Fig.  17,  PI.  9,  however,  like  many  others, 
is  uncommon.  Usually  the  body  section  is  longer  than 
either  the  thigh  or  leg,  though  it  is  the  middle  third 
(thigh)  that  usually  suffers  the  most  when  the  body  much 
exceeds  these  limits  (as  in  Fig.  18,  PI.  9).  But,  as  it  is 
not  to  be  expected  or  even  desired  that  persons  learning 
the  simplest  elements  of  drawing  should  enter  upon  the 
consideration  of  matters  which  belong  to  the  exactest 
study  of  the  art,  it  would  be  best,  perhaps,  for  the  sake 
of  keeping  to  elementary  principles,  that  all  the  parts 
should  be  considered  equal,  as  in  Fig.  17. 

The  distance  from  the  top  of  the  sternum  to  the  top 
of  the  head,  in  Figs.  17  and  18,  is  four-sixths  of  the 
length  of  the  upper  third  in  each ; but,  for  reasons 
already  given,  the  pupil  might  be  instructed  to  make 
this  section  equal  to  one-half  the  upper  third.  A square 
being,  under  all  circumstances,  necessary  for  this  meas- 
urement, let  the  height  of  the  body  be  what  it  may  to 
secure  a proper  apportionment  of  this  element  to  the 
whole  height ; the  requirement  being  nearly  the  same 
under  all  circumstances  for  figures  of  medium  propor- 


18 


tion,  such  as  this  classification  is  meant  to  represent. 
The  head,  face,  and  neck,  for  reasons  already  given, 
should  be  made  of  equal  length  also. 

The  width  of  the  pelvis  in  Figs.  17,  18,  is  four-sixths 
of  that  of  the  shoulders.  It  will  be  sufficient  to  say, 
that  it  should  be  made  considerably  less. 

Fig.  19,  PI.  10,  a plan  showing  the  increase  and  di- 
vergence of  the  right  and  left  sections  from  a median 
line,  as  seen  in  the  male  figure,  Nos.  17  and  18, 
PI.  9. 

A,  B,  C,  right  side  ; C,  D,  A,  left  side ; 1 to  2,  the 
body ; 2 to  3,  the  thighs ; 3 to  4,  the  legs. 

A figure  to  appear  in  motion  (be  the  position  what  it 
may)  should  be  imperfectly  poised.  Compare,  in  the 
following  illustrations,  E,  F,  G,  PI.  10,  with  X,  PI. 
11:  — 

All  these  illustrations,  except  perhaps  17,  18,  PI.  9, 
should  be  carefully  drawn  and  fully  explained  by  the 
teacher ; and  every  figure  made  in  single  lines  should 
be  repeated  in  double  lines,  and  the  difference  pointed 
out. 

Section  II. 

Whole  quantities  as  derived  from  vertical  and  trans- 
verse elements  in  Fig.  19. 

Figs.  20  and  21,  PI.  11.  Children  should  be  taught 
to  make  these  figures  exactly  as  here  described,  taking 
particular  care  to  keep  all  the  principal  sections  of  equal 
length,  — body,  thigh,  and  leg  ; adding,  if  need  be,  the 
vertical  lines  A,  B,  of  Figs.  17,  18,  PL  9,  to  show  that 


19 


the  parts  are  the  same.  After  which,  the  parts  1 to  7, 
PI.  12,  A,  B,  C,  D,  E,  F,  G,  should  be  drawn  separately  ; 
noticing  the  difference  in  their  directions,  and  that  the 
upper  arm  is  longer  than  the  fore-arm,  and  that  the  thigh 
is  longer  than  the  leg. 

Then  let  the  parts  be  added  successively  in  separate 
drawings,  as  in  1,  2,  3,  4. 

After  which,  these  being  made  with  ease,  let  then} 
repeat  the  following  figures  : — 

Front  Vieiv,  5,  6 ; and  PI.  13,  Figs.  7,  8,  9,  10,  11,  12, 
Side  View,  Figs.  1 to  11,  Pis.  14  and  15. 

Observe  that  the  side  is  not  so  wide  as  the  front  (see 
20,  21,  PI.  11),  and  that  the  arms  and  legs  are  attached 
to  the  body,  or  central  line,  as  in  primitive  line-draw- 
ings. 

Three-quarter  View. 

In  these  drawings,  two  sides  of  the  upper  third  must 
be  shown,  as  in  the  following  plans:  1,  PI.  15,  A,  the 
front ; B,  the  side  ; A or  B may  be  the  greater  or  lesser 
quantity,  as  the  figure  is  turned  more  or  less  to  the  front, 
as  in  plans  XXX.,  and  in  illustrations  1 to  5,  Pis.  15, 
16. 

Three-quarter  Vieiv  foreshortened. 

In  three-quarter  view  foreshortened  (that  is,  leaning 
towards  you  or  from  you),  three  sides  of  the  upper  third 
must  be  shown,  as  in  the  succeeding  plans,  PI.  16, 


20 


W,  W,  Fig.  1,  A,  the  front;  B,  the  side;  C,  the  top. 
Fig.  2,  A,  the  front ; B,  the  side ; C,  the  end.  Fig.  1 
leans  towards  you  ; Fig.  2,  from  you. 

In  drawing  figures  in  whole  quantities,  let  it  be  ex- 
plained that  as  much  of  one  part  as  lies  behind  another 
cannot  be  seen  ; and  that  one  side  of  the  body  cannot  be 
turned  towards  you,  without  turning  the  other  from  you. 
In  which  case,  taking  the  arms  and  body  as  an  example, 
the  parts  will  be  situated  as  follows  : first,  the  arm  turned 
toward  you;  then,  the  body  behind  it;  and,  lastly,  the 
further  arm  behind  the  body.  See  all  the  previous  draw- 
ings of  whole  quantities  ; and  as  it  is  impossible  to  make 
profile  or  three-quarter  drawings  without  placing  one 
part  behind  another,  so  it  is  impossible  in  these  drawings 
to  show  as  much  of  one  limb  as  another.  The  length 
of  the  further  limb  is  to  be  found  by  tracing  it  to  its 
articulation  with  the  body,  as  in  the  foregoing  figures, 
Nos.  1,  2,  3,  three-quarter  views,  Pis.  15,  16,  P,  P,  P. 

Foreshortened  Figures.  1 to  10,  Pis.  17,  18,  19. 

Foreshortening. 

Diagram  showing  the  parts  and  quantities  seen  as  the 
body  is  more  or  less  foreshortened,  PI.  20. 

A vertical  line,  embracing  all  the  rays  proceeding  from 
all  the  body,  — as  in  X,  AA,  or  parts  of  the  body,  Y ; 
PP,  the  arm ; R,  the  arm  and  fore-arm ; L,  the  leg,  — 
will  show  the  actual  surface  that  each  part  should  occupy 
upon  it. 


n.  7 


Fig . Ill 


PL  8. 


PI.  9 


Fig.  17  Fig . Iff . 


Fir/.  If) 

BCD  PI.  10. 


Part  3 d Whole  quantities 


6 


PL 


Fig.  K‘ 


PI.  14 


PI.  15. 


Mg.  10 


Fit/.  1 


([aarfers  view,  fort 


- 


lore  shortened  Figures. 


ri.17 


Fi9.2 


He,.  3. 


FI.  18 


my.  r, 


PI.  19 . 


Fig  . 9 


\ 


roie;  slioTteimil 


• fell 


21 


PART  III. 

SKELETON  LIMITS. 


No.  1.  Head. 

„ 2.  Face. 

„ 3.  Neck. 

„ 4.  Trapezial  corner  block. 
„ 5.  Clavicle. 

„ 6.  Breast. 

„ 7.  Ribs. 

„ 8.  Space  under  the  ribs. 

„ 9.  Pelvis ; V,  the  measur- 
ing point. 

„ 10.  Thighs. 

„ 11.  Outside  of  the  leg, 
above  the  knee-pan, 
A,  Figs.  1,  2. 


No.  12.  Inside  of  the  leg,  be- 
low the  knee-pan, 
Fig.  1 and  Figs.  17, 
18,  Part  II.,  PI.  9. 

„ 13.  Leg. 

„ 14.  Foot. 

„ 15.  Fig.  2,  top  of  the 

thigh. 

„ 16.  Back. 

„ 17.  Shoulder-plate. 

B,  C,  D,  Fig.  2.  First,  second, 
and  third  section  of  the 
back  of  the  leg. 


Head.  — PI.  21. 

1.  The  head  and  face  an  egg-shaped,  oval,  front 
view. 

2.  A,  the  head ; B,  the  face. 

3.  A,  the  head  an  egg-shaped,  oval  (drawn  horizon- 
tally) profile ; B,  the  face  one-half  of  a smaller  oval, 


22 


leaning  slightly  forward,  drawn  under  the  small  end  of 
the  upper  oval. 

A,  B,  C,  D,  E,  in  Fig.  4,  the  same  as  parts  numbered 
1 to  5 in  Figs.  1 and  2,  the  same  and  other  letters  as 
figured  in  1 and  2 also. 

In  Fig.  3,  the  opening  of  the  ear,  X,  or  meeting  of 
the  inner  line  of  the  lower  oval  with  the  under  line 
of  the  upper,  is  opposite  the  bridge  of  the  nose. 

Let  two  marks  for  the  eyes,  as  in  Fig.  4,  take  the 
place,  in  subsequent  drawings,  of  the  line  across  the  face 
marking  the  under  limit  of  the  cerebral  oval  (see  Fig.  2). 
Notice  that  the  upper  oval  projects  beyond  the  under 
from  X to  A,  Fig.  3 ; leaving  room  for  the  neck  behind 
the  jaw,  as  in  Fig.  5,  X,  A. 

Let  the  teacher  observe  all  the  rules  of  the  previous 
parts  and  illustrations,  especially  the  fundamental  ones 
of  length  and  width  ; to  which  add  the  following : that 
the  back  will  bend  opposite  the  open  space  (T,  Fig.  1 ; 
8,  Fig.  2)  between  the  pelvis  and  ribs  ; that,  in  stooping 
or  sitting,  the  pelvis  and  ribs  must  be  pressed  together 
as  in  the  following  figures  (8,  PI.  22  ; 9,  PI.  23)  : — 

A,  the  ribs  ; B.  the  pelvis  (Figs.  8,  9)  pressed  together, 
as  is  natural  in  these  positions ; the  open  space,  8,  be- 
tween the  ribs  and  pelvis  (see  Figs.  1,  2,  PI.  21,  Div.  8), 
being  very  much  lessed  by  the  flexion. 

Observe  that  the  back  in  these  Figs.  8,  9,  exhibits 
three  planes,  — 

1.  The  shoulder; 

2.  The  back ; 

3.  The  loins  ; 


23 


and  that  these  angles  are  not  visible  when  the  figure  is 
placed  erect  (see  Fig.  2,  PI.  21,  Div.  16). 

That  the  pelvis  and  ribs  must  be  separated  when  the 
body  leans  hack,  as  in  Fig.  10,  PI.  23. 

Compare  Div.  8 (the  abdominal  section),  Fig.  10,  with 
the  same  part  in  the  preceding  Fig.  8,  PI.  22,  Fig.  9, 
PI.  23.  Notice  that  the  body  may  be  bent  sideways,  as 
in  Fig.  11,  PI.  24. 

Observe,  in  the  plan,  how  much  nearer  the  ribs  are 
to  the  pelvis  on  the  upper  or  flexed  side  than  on  the 
lower  or  extended  side  of  the  body  ; and  that  the  clavicle 
on  the  right  side,  A,  is  pressed  up  by  the  arm  (perhaps 
it  would  be  as  well  to  say  that  the  inner  end  is  depressed 
by  the  sinking  of  the  body)  by  reclining  in  this  manner 
below  the  shoulder  end,  which  is  supported  by  the  hume- 
rus, or  bone  of  the  upper  arm. 

In  examples  1 and  2,  PL  24,  A and  B have  dotted 
lines,  showing  the  form  of  the  abdomen.  This  may  be 
done  in  subsequent  drawings. 

Fig.  3,  PI.  25.  Clavicle  elevated  at  the  outer  ends, 
C,  D. 

Figs.  4,  PI.  25  ; 5,  6,  PI.  26,  — illustrate  the  action  of 
the  parts. 

Let  all  the  illustrative  figures  of  Part  II.  be  re- 
peated, with  the  introduction  of  all  the  present  division : 
noticing,  that,  when  the  body  is  flexed  or  bent  together, 
the  abdomen  protrudes,  as  in  the  Fig.  8,  A ; and  that 
when  it  is  extended,  or  bent  back,  it  flattens,  as  in  Fig. 
9,  A. 

After  the  pupil  becomes  familiar  with  the  different 
sections  as  thus  far  explained,  let  the  figure  be  drawn  as 


24 


is  directed  in  Figs.  1 and  2,  this  Part,  PL  21;  and  then 
let  the  inlines,  marking  the  different  sections,  be  oblit- 
erated, and  the  outline,  as  in  life,  will  remain  as  follows 
(Fig.  10,  PL  27) : — 

Fig.  10. 

1.  Outline  of  pectoral  section. 

2.  Outline  of  costal  section. 

3.  Outline  of  flank  or  section  between  the  ribs  and 
pelvis  (Sec.  8,  Fig.  1,  PL  21  ; and  A,  B,  Figs.  3, 
5,  6). 

4.  Outline  of  pelvis. 

5.  Outline  of  thigh. 

6.  Outline  of  leg. 

7.  Outline  of  foot. 

After  which,  in  front  view,  Fig.  11,  add  the  outline  of 
the  top  of  the  clavicle  two-thirds  the  way  to  the  shoul- 
der, the  pectoral  section,  and  the  line  for  the  flesh  cover- 
ing the  pubis. 

Fig.  11. 

1.  The  top  of  the  clavicle. 

2.  The  pectoral  lines. 

3.  The  pubic  lines  ; and  for  the  back,  the  shoulder- 
plate  (2),  the  line  marking  the  right  and  left  dorsal 
section  (3),  the  top  of  the  thigh  (4),  the  calf  of  the  leg 
(5),  and  the  heel. 


Tart  3a  PI  21. 

Skeleton  Limits . 


T1.22 


Fuj.  8. 


Tl.  23. 


fig  9 


Fig.  11 


T1.24 


PI.  25 


PI.  2(3. 


T1.27 


S' ) 


r-j  ^ CO  ^ 


25 


Fig.  12. 

1.  Trapezial  or  corner  block. 

2.  Shoulder-plate. 

3.  Dorsal  section. 

4.  Top  of  thigh. 

5.  Angular  line  under  the  calf  of  the  leg. 

6.  Heel  section. 

Fig.  13.  .Profile  Lines  to  be  introduced. 

1.  Trapezial  section  or  block. 

2.  Top  of  clavicle. 

3.  Pectoral  line. 

4.  Shoulder-plate. 

5.  Costal  section,  under  pectoral. 

6.  Dorsal  section  (Sec.  3,  Fig.  12). 

7.  Abdomen. 

8.  Pubis. 

9.  Top  of  thigh ; 9A,  back  of  thigh ; 9B,  front  of 
thigh. 

10.  Superior  angle  of  calf  of  leg. 

11.  Inferior  angle. 

12.  Achilles  tendon. 

13.  Heel. 

Let  the  pupil  make  all  the  previous  figures  of  Part  II. 
and  III.  in  living  outline  as  above  (11,  12,  13). 


26 


PART  IV. 

H E A D. 


To  the  Teacher. 

Figs.  1,  2,  3.  PL  28. 

1.  Head  of  child. 

2.  Head  of  female. 

3.  Head  of  male. 

Observe  in  the  infant’s  head,  Fig.  1,  that  A,  the  cere- 
bral section  (the  whole  mass  above  the  eyes),  is  larger 
than  the  facial  section  (the  quantity  below  the  eyes); 
the  eyes  being  below  the  line  X,  which  divides  the  head 
into  equal  parts. 

In  the  female  head,  Fig.  2,  the  oval  is  smaller  at  the 
lower  end  than  the  same  part  in  the  child’s  head ; the 
eyes  being  on  the  median  line,  X. 

In  the  male  head,  the  lower  end  of  the  oval  is  larger 
than  in  the  head  of  the  female ; and  the  eyes  are  above 
the  median  line,  X.  This  rule  is  exemplified  only  in 
the  greatest  number  of  the  best  heads,  male  and  female, 
at  the  period  of  early  puberty ; it  being  most  commonly 
the  case  that  the  distance  from  the  eyes  to  the  chin  is 
greater  than  that  from  the  eyes  to  the  top  of  the  head. 


27 


At  the  period  of  early  infancy,  the  rule  as  given  more 
commonly  holds  good. 

The  following  generalization  of  the  quantities  found 
in  a great  number  of  heads  will  be  found  sufficiently 
exact  to  enable  the  pupil  to  comprehend  then'  simplest 
elements  : — 

There  should  be  nearly  the  distance  of  an  eye  between 
the  eyes  (Fig.  4,  PI.  28,  A). 

Two-thirds  the  length  of  an  eye  from  the  outer  corner 
of  the  eye  to  the  outline  of  the  face,  B. 

The  width  of  an  eye  from  the  eye  to  the  eyebrow,  C. 

The  eyebrow  should  begin  within  the  inner  corner  of 
the  eye,  and  extend  a little  beyond  the  outer  corner 
of  the  eye.  The  width  of  the  nose  across  the  nostrils, 
I),  D,  should  be  nearly  as  great  as  the  length  of  the 
eye.  The  thickness  of  the  nose  at  A,  between  the  eyes, 
should  be  one-tliird  that  of  the  end  of  the  nose.  The 
top  of  the  ear,  E,  should  not  be  above  the  eyebrow,  C ; 
the  bottom  of  the  ear,  F,  not  below  the  top  of  the  nos- 
tril, D.  From  the  top  of  the  head  to  the  middle  of 
eye  (noticing  the  difference  in  the  heads  of  the  male, 
female,  and  child,  above  described)  should  be  one-lialf 
the  whole  head,  G,  L.  The  nose  should  extend  from 
the  middle  of  the  eyes  half  way  to  the  chin,  A,  L (one- 
quarter  of  the  head) ; and  if  the  remainder  or  lower 
quarter,  H,  L (from  the  end  of  the  nose  to  the  chin),  be 
divided  into  five  equal  parts,  the  line  for  the  meeting  of 
the  lips  should  be  on  that  marking  the  junction  of  the 
two  upper  with  the  three  lower  fifths,  J,  J. 

The  mouth  should  be  one-half  longer  than  the  width 
of  the  nose. 


28 


Profile.  Fig.  5,  PL  28. 

The  distance  from  the  bridge  of  the  nose,  A,  to  the 
back  of  the  head,  B,  should  be  divided  into  three  equal 
parts,  — two  of  which  should  stand  for  the  distance  from 
the  bridge  of  the  nose  to  the  opening  of  the  ear ; and 
the  third,  for  the  distance  from  the  opening  of  the  ear 
to  the  back  of  the  head.  There  should  be  one-half 
the  length  of  an  eye  from  the  bridge  of  the  nose  to  the 
ball  of  the  eye,  X,  X.  One-half  the  length  of  an  eye 
should  be  seen  in  profile,  X,  Y (this  means  the  ball  of 
the  eye).  One-half  the  mouth  should  be  seen  in  profile 

(V,  V). 

The  corner  of  the  mouth  should  be  nearly  on  a line 
with  the  front  of  the  eye,  V,  X. 

The  profile  depth  of  the  nose,  W,  W,  from  the  back 
of  the  nostril  to  the  end  of  the  nose,  should  be  equal  in 
length  to  the  width  of  the  nose  across  the  nostrils  in 
front  view,  D,  D,  Fig.  4. 

The  back  of  the  nostril,  W,  should  be  a little  in  ad- 
vance of  the  front  of  the  eye,  X,  and  the  corner  of  the 
mouth,  V.  The  upper  lip  and  depression  at  the  top  of 
the  nose,  in  front  of  the  eye,  X,  V,  should  be  upon  a 
vertical  line. 

The  end  of  the  nose,  W,  should  project  beyond  the 
line  two-thirds  of  the  length  from  the  point  of  the  nose, 
W,  to  the  back  of  the  nostril,  W. 

The  angle  of  the  jaw,  B,  should  be  nearly  on  a level 
with  the  corner  of  the  mouth,  V. 

If  the  whole  length  of  the  jaw  horizontally  be  divided 


29 


into  four  equal  parts,  three  would  be  for  the  inferior 
border,  T,  R,  and  one  for  the  superior  border,  R,  W. 

The  junction  of  the  neck  with  the  chin  should  be 
half  way  between  T and  R,  at  O. 

The  distance  from  the  end  of  the  nose,  W,  to  the  back 
of  the  head,  B,  upon  a horizontal  line,  should  be  nearly 
the  same  as  that  from  the  top  of  the  head  to  the  chin, 
Z,  T. 

Exercises. 

Let  the  pupil  proceed  as  follows  : — 

The  Eye.  PI.  29. 

Fig.  1.  Inner  corner,  X,  and  under  line  of  upper 
lid. 

2.  Inner  corner,  under  and  upper  line  of  upper  lid. 

3.  The  same,  with  outline  of  iris,  T. 

4.  The  same,  with  outline  of  pupil,  P. 

5.  The  same,  with  upper  line  of  under  lid,  U. 

6.  The  same,  with  the  eyebrow,  O,  and  the  curved 
lines,  q , q , marking  the  inner  and  outer  limits  of  the 
double  lid,  or  region  between  the  upper  lid  and  eye- 
brow. 

Eye  in  Profile. 

7.  The  ball  of  the  eye,  L,  and  under  line  of  upper 
lid,  O. 

8.  The  same,  with  boundary-line  of  upper  lid  in  front, 
V ; and  upper  line  of  upper  lid,  as  in  2,  3,  4,  5,  6,  in 
front  view. 

9.  The  same,  with  upper  line  of  under  lid. 


30 


10.  The  same,  with  line  W for  iris. 

11.  The  same,  with  eyebrow,  11,  and  the  line  of  brow, 
B.  and  nose,  N.  Observe  that  the  upper  lid  in  all  these 
numbers,  7 to  11.  projects  beyond  the  ball  of  the  eye, 
W,  W ; and  that  it  also  projects  beyond  the  under  lid  at 
the  inner  corner,  V,  V (as  in  9,  10,  11  ; as  in  5 and  6, 
front  view.  V,  V). 

Mouth.  — Front  View.  PI.  29. 

Fig.  1.  Under  line  of  upper  lip,  having  three  parts.  — 
B,  central ; and  A,  C,  the  lateral  lobes. 

2.  'fhe  upper  line  of  upper  lip,  having  three  sections, 
— the  central.  E ; and  two  lateral,  D.  F. 

3.  The  same,  with  the  lines  of  the  face.  X,  X ; under 
which  the  corners  of  the  mouth  disappear. 

4.  The  same,  with  the  boundary-line  of  the  under  lip. 
This  line  is  meant  to  bound  or  represent  the  principal 
fleshiness  of  the  mass  ; the  under  lip  usually  terminating 
at  the  same  point  with  the  upper  lip. 


Profile.  PI.  30. 

Fig.  5.  A,  upper  and  corner  line  of  upper  lip  ; B,  cen- 
tral lobe  (see  B.  front  view) ; C,  side  lobe  (see  C,  side 
lobe,  front  view). 

Fig.  6.  The  same,  with  front  line,  D,  and  boundary,  E 
(see  V,  Fig.  4,  front  view,  XX),  cutaneous  portions  of 
upper  and  under  lip.  Notice  that  the  upper  lip  projects 
beyond  the  under  lip  ; and  that  the  curve  of  each  is 
nearly  the  same,  of  the  colored  or  mucous  surface. 


31 


Nose.  — Front  View.  PI.  30. 

Fig.  1.  Frontal  section,  or  section  above  the  eyes. 

2.  The  same,  with  the  bridge,  or  tirst  section,  below 
the  eyes. 

3.  The  same,  with  the  third  or  cartilaginous  section 
below  the  bridge. 

4.  The  same,  with  the  end  of  the  nose,  A,  and  nos- 
trils, B,  C.  Notice  that  the  nostrils  fold  under  the  end 
of  the  nose,  and  that  the  end  of  the  nose  is  below  the 
nostrils. 

5.  The  same,  with  the  side  of  the  nostrils,  D,  D. 

6.  The  same,  with  the  line  of  the  face,  E,  E ; and  the 
channel  between  the  nose  and  upper  lip,  E.  This 
.channel  or  groove  is  wider  at  the  bottom  than  at  the 
top. 

7.  The  same,  with  the  addition  of  the  eyes  and  mouth 
and  outline  of  chin,  as  seen  in  front  view,  Z. 

Nose  in  Profile.  PI.  30. 

Fig.  1.  Frontal  section,  or  section  above  the  eyes. 

2.  The  same,  with  the  bridge,  or  first  section,  below 
the  eye. 

3.  The  same,  with  the  third  or  cartilaginous  sec- 
tion. 

4.  PI.  31.  The  same,  with  the  end  of  the  nose  in  three 
parts. 

5.  The  same,  with  the  line  for  the  lower  border  of 
the  nostril ; which,  it  must  be  observed,  is  turned  under 
or  into  itself  at  H ; the  cartilage,  FI,  always  to  be  below 
the  nostril,  and  the  nostril  horizontal. 


6.  The  same,  with  the  inner  and  upper  borders  of  the 
nostril,  AV,  V. 

7.  The  same,  with  the  line  T connecting  the  face  with 
the  nose  and  the  cutaneous  portion  of  the  upper  lip, 
Z,  Z ; and  the  mucous  or  colored  portion,  Z,  G. 

8.  The  same,  with  colored  portion  of  under  lip,  and 
line  of  lace  at  the  inner  corner,  as  in  front  view. 

9.  The  same,  with  cutaneous  portion  of  under  lip,  II. 

10.  'flie  same,  with  outline  of  chin,  13 ; and  second  or 
double  chin,  Y. 

11.  The  same,  with  brow  or  frontal  section,  Iv,  S,  in 
two  lines. 

K,  J,  S.  Each  section  of  every  feature  should  be  given 
as  a separate  lesson ; adding,  as  the  pupil  advances  in 
execution,  one  section  to  another  as  above,  and  as  is 
directed  through  every  part  and  section  of  this  hook ; at 
the  same  time  giving  the  rule  applicable  to  the  part, 
requesting  the  pupil  to  commit  it  to  memory : for  which 
purpose,  in  every  case,  there  should  be  recitations. 

First  steps  for  young  children,  observing  all  the  pre- 
vious rules  for  the  location  and  division  of  parts. 

PI.  31,  Fig.  1.  Head,  A;  face,  B. 

2.  The  same,  with  nose  and  four  corner  sections.  — 
1 to  4.  The  under  two  to  be  rather  smaller  than  the 
two  upper. 

3.  The  same,  with  one-third  of  inner  section  of  face 
in  a corner  section. 

4.  The  same,  with  a line  for  the  back  of  the  neck 
attached  to  the  inner  corner  of  angle  4,  and  inclining 
outwards,  and  one-third  of  lower  border  of  face  in  corner 
section. 


Part  4 . Head 


T'l.  2 !’ 


My.  2. 


PI.  2 .9 


Exercises. 
The  Eye . 


X 


Mouth. 


Profile 


PI.  30. 


7 


^-35^ 


33 


5.  The  same,  with  front  line  of  neck  attached  half 
way  between  the  line  bounding-  the  inner  corner  section, 
X,  and  the  chin,  C. 

6.  The  same,  with  the  first  and  second  lines  of  the 
eye,  the  under  line  of  nostril,  and  first  line  of  mouth. 

7.  PI.  32.  The  same,  with  the  eyebrow  and  ear. 

8.  The  same,  with  all  the  outer  sections  removed,  and 
a line  for  the  second  chin  added. 


P A R T y. 


TIIE  EAR. 

PI.  32,  Pig.  1.  The  lobe. 

2.  The  lobe,  and  outer  border  of  the  rim,  A,  B,  axis. 

3.  The  same,  with  inner  border  of  rim,  B. 

4.  The  same,  with  under  line,  X,  of  body,  I ; and 
inner  outline  of  lower  cavity,  S,  S. 

5.  The  same,  with  outline  of  cavity,  T,  at  the  top  of 
the  body  of  the  ear ; the  auditory  passage,  P ; and 
boundary  of  inner  rim,  R. 

The  ear  is  so  complicated  a structure,  that  no  reduc- 
tion of  its  parts  to  simple  elements  can  be  effected, 
except  by  making  such  reduction  of  all  its  parts  sepa- 
rately. The  following  (Fig.  6),  however,  may  be  of 
service  to  the  teacher : — 

Face  ( continued ). 

Front  View , for  Young  Children.  PI.  32. 

Fig.  1.  Cerebral  section. 

2.  The  same,  with  facial  section. 

3.  The  same,  with  lines  for  eye,  nose,  and  month. 

4.  The  same,  with  lines  for  top  of  head  and  chin, 
A,  B. 

5.  The  same,  with  terminal  line  of  cheek,  Z,  Z. 

6.  The  same,  with  sides  of  neck. 


35 


When  the  child  succeeds  in  drawing  these  angles  and 
features  well,  it  should  be  taught  to  make  the  three 
ovals,  1,  2,  3,  first  figures  of  this  Part;  after  which,  the 
features,  eyes,  nose,  and  mouth,  one  line  at  a time, 
should  be  added,  each  in  a separate  drawing  of  the  oval, 
in  front  view  and  profile,  until  the  whole  is  completed, 
as  in  Figs.  4,  5,  this  Part. 


Face.  — Three-quarter  View.  PI.  32. 

Fig.  1.  Front  of  nose. 

2.  Front  and  end,  A. 

3.  The  same,  with  circle  for  outer  eyebrow,  B. 

4.  The  same,  with  larger  circle  for  inner  eyebrow,  C ; 
this  being  higher  and  longer  than  the  outer  circle,  B. 

5.  The  same,  with  first  line  of  upper  lid,  D ; and 
outline  of  iris,  E.  The  line  for  the  inner  corner  of  the 
outer  eye  should  touch  the  outer  line  of  the  nose.  The 
outer  end  of  the  outer  eyebrow  should  project  beyond 
the  outer  corner  of  the  eye.  The  inner  eye,  a three- 
quarters  view,  should  be  two-thirds  the  whole  length 
of  an  eye  in  front  view.  The  inner  corner  of  inner  eye 
should  be  two-thirds  the  length  of  an  eye,  in  front  view, 
from  the  outer  line  of  the  nose,  where  it  is  touched  by 
the  outer  eye.  The  inner  and  outer  corners  of  the  inner 
eyebrow  should  project  beyond  the  inner  and  outer  cor- 
ners of  the  inner  eye. 

6.  The  same,  with  under  line  of  nostril,  E.  Notice 
that  the  end  of  the  nose  projects  as  far  as  the  centre  of 
the  outer  eye,  W,  W. 

7.  The  same,  with  vertical  line  of  nostril,  G ; and  oval 


cavity  in  centre  of  upper  lip,  H.  The  nostril  should 
extend  nearly  as  far  back  as  the  inner  corner  of  the 
inner  eye. 

8.  The  same,  with  upper  lip  ; the  outer  section  of 
which  is  less  than  the  inner. 

9.  The  same,  with  under  lip ; the  outer  section  of 
which  is  less  than  the  inner.  The  outer  corner  of  the 
mouth  should  not  project  beyond  the  end  of  the  nose. 
One-half  the  inner  half  of  the  mouth  should  project 
beyond  the  nostril,  J,  J. 

10.  PI.  33.  The  same,  with  outline  of  forehead,  Iv  ; 
and  cheek,  L : the  outline  of  the  forehead  terminating 
opposite  the  outer  corner  of  the  outer  eye ; the  outline 
of  cheek  beginning  at  that  point,  and  terminating  a little 
below  the  under  lip. 

11.  The  same,  with  outline  of  chin  and  inferior  angle 
of  jaw,  M ; and  superior  angle  of  jaw,  N. 

12.  The  same,  with  cerebral  circle,  O ; ear,  P;  and 
line  for  the  front  and  back  of  the  neck,  q , q. 

In  three-quarter  heads,  all  the  vertical  elements  of 
heads  in  front  view  remain  the  same. 

Hand.  PI.  33. 

Fig.'  1.  Palm  of  hand. 

2.  Side  of  hand. 

3.  Back  of  hand. 

The  thumb  has  but  two  free  joints  (see  Figs.  1,  2,  and 
3 ; Nos.  1,  2,  and  4). 

The  fingers  have  three  free  joints  (see  Figs.  1,  2,  3 ; 
Nos.  1,  2,  3). 


37 


The  first  joint  of  each  finger,  No.  1,  as  seen  in  Fig.  1, 
is  partly  covered  by  the  front  section  of  the  palm  of  the 
hand  (A,  A,  Figs.  1 and  3),  when  the  back  of  the  hand 
is  seen  (Fig.  3).  The  first  joint  of  each  finger  covers 
the  palm  of  the  hand  (A,  Fig.  3),  extending  nearly  as 
far  back  from  the  palmer  line,  A,  to  the  joint,  11,  as  it 
extends  forward  from  the  same  line  to  C,  the  second 
joint ; thus  making  the  palm  of  the  hand  (A,  I),  Fig.  1) 
longer  than  the  back  by  the  quantity  from  A to  H 
(Fig.  3). 

The  thumb  should  extend  a little  beyond  the  palm 
line,  A,  Fig.  1. 

The  convexity  of  the  palm  line  should  be  greatest 
opposite  the  middle  finger ; from  which  point  it  should 
extend  obliquely  backward,  as  in  Fig.  1. 

The  first  joint,  No.  1 (Figs.  1,  2),  should  be  nearly 
twice  as  long  as  the  second,  No.  2;  and  the  second  nearly 
twice  as  long  as  the  third,  No.  3. 

The  hand,  from  the  end  of  the  finger,  E,  Fig.  3,  to  the 
wrist,  D,  should  be  twice  as  long  as  it  is  wide.  The 
middle  of  the  hand,  B,  should  be  half  way  between  A 
and  II,  Fig.  3.  The  middle  finger  should  be  longest. 
The  fore  and  third  finger  should  be  of  equal  length. 
The  little  finger  should  be  three-fourths  as  long  as  the 
third  finger. 

This  section,  X,  Fig.  2,  and  lower  outline,  No.  1,  is 
that  between  A and  B,  Figs.  1 and  3,  and  is  alterable,  as 
in  Fig.  4,  X ; making,  for  the  first  joint,  a double  palmer 
section,  X,  L,  Fig.  4. 


Exercises.  Figs.  A,  B,  C,  1),  PI.  33;  and  E,  F,  G,  II,  PI.  34. 


38 


Foot.  PI.  34. 

Fig.  3.  The  inner  ankle,  A,  is  higher  than  the  outer, 

B.  The  inner  ankle,  A,  is  above  the  instep,  C. 

Figs.  2,  3.  The  outer,  D,  Fig.  4,  is  below  the  instep, 

C,  FI.  35  ; tarsal  section,  C,  Figs.  2 and  4 ; metatarsal 
section,  E,  Figs.  2 and  4 ; toes,  F,  Figs.  2 and  4. 

Fig.  3.  From  1 to  2,  cavity  under  inner  ankle  ; 2 to  3, 
inner  tarsal  bones ; 3 to  4,  inner  metatarsal  plane ; 6, 
inner  ball  of  foot ; 7,  outer  ball  of  foot ; 8 to  9,  outer 
metatarsal  section ; 9 to  10,  muscular  section,  covering 
outer  tarsal  section  (see  X,  Fig.  4)  ; 10  to  B,  cavity  under 
outer  ankle;  7 to  11.  Fig.  3,  upper  line  of  toes;  12  to 

13,  terminal  line  of  toes  (see  also  same  section,  Fig.  1). 
Observe  that  the  toes  decrease  in  length  from  13  to  12; 

14,  line  of  leg ; 15,  line  of  foot. 

Figs.  2 and  4.  1,  upper  heel;  2,  lower  heel;  3,4, 
narrowest  part  of  ankle.  Figs.  4,  6,  tendon  of  anterior 
tibial  muscle.  Notice  that,  in  Fig.  1,  the  sole  of  the 
foot  covers  the  first  joint  of  the  toes.  Compare  this 
section  with  the  same  in  Fig.  3,  and  with  the  correspond- 
ing parts  of  the  hand.  Observe  that  the  greatest  ante- 
rior projection  of  the  sole  of  the  foot  is  between  the  first 
and  second  toes.  Compare  the  sole  of  the  foot  with  the 
palm  of  hand.  H,  Fig.  2,  inner  line  of  sole ; I,  outer 
line  of  sole,  Fig.  4 ; 4 to  6,  ball  of  great  toe,  Fig.  2 ; K, 
Fig.  4,  ball  of  little  toe  ; Fig.  5,  FI.  34,  plan  of  direction 
of  toes. 


Fig.  10  Mi). 77  Fig.  12  PI.  33. 


G 


PI.  34. 


PL  35 


39 


Exercises.  PI.  35,  A,  B,  C,  D,  E,  F,  G,  H. 

A,  profile ; B,  front  view  ; C,  back  view ; D,  side  view, 
foot  extended  ; E,  side  view,  foot  flexed  ; F,  three-quarter 
view,  front ; G,  three-quarter  view,  behind  ; H,  soles  of 
feet. 

These  must  be  given,  one  section  at  a time,  as  in  pre- 
vious examples. 

Expression.  PI.  36. 

Plan  1.  The  latent  face,  all  lines  horizontal. 

Plan  2.  Pleasure,  mirth,  laughter,  all  lines  elevated  at 
the  outer  corner. 

Plan  3.  Sorrow,  suffering,  pain,  agony,  all  lines  de- 
pressed at  the  outer  corner. 

Plan  4.  Dislike,  anger,  hate,  malignity,  rage,  fury, 
— eyebrows  depressed  at  the  inner  corner,  eyes  horizon- 
tal from  beneath  them,  nostrils  elevated  at  outer  corner, 
mouth  depressed  at  outer  corner. 

Proceed  to  instruct  the  pupil,  one  element  at  a time,  as 
in  the  succeeding  illustration  (Plan  21,  22,  23,  24,  &c.) : — 

Plan  1,  2,  3,  4.  Lines  of  expression  in  profile. 


40 


PART  VI. 

FORM. 

Plate  37. 

Figs.  1 and  2 must  be  repeated  as  in  Fig.  3 ; care  being 
taken  to  preserve  the  relative  proportions  of  the  great 
divisions  of  the  body,  A,  B,  C,  according  to  rule  laid 
down  in  Part  L,  p.  17. 

Fig.  4,  as  derived  from  5,  same  page,  to  be  repeated 
in  double  lines,  as  in  Fig.  6.  Triple  lines  should  be 
drawn  as  soon  as  the  details  of  form  are  accomplished, 
and  committed  to  memory  in  double  lines.  When  this 
last  is  accomplished,  change  the  action  of  the  lines  from 
standing  to  walking  and  to  running,  according  to  prin- 
ciples laid  down  in  Part  I.,  Section  1,  single  lines. 

Plate  38. 

Let  the  pupil  copy  each  figure  direct  with  the  great- 
est care,  committing  the  details  of  each  of  the  several 
parts  — body,  thigh,  and  leg  — to  memory;  then  re- 
produce in  each  of  the  different  forms  of  primitive 
sections. 

Plates  39  and  40. 

Let  the  pupil  complete  the  several  drawings  on  these 
pages  by  adding  the  parts  which  are  omitted  from  study 


41 


of  muscular  figures  on  pp.  10,  11,  12;  and  from  the' 
principles  of  action  laid  down  in  Part  I.,  Section  2, 
p.  11;  and  from  a careful  study  of  skeleton  limits,  Part 
III.,  PI.  21  to  24;  and  from  drawing  three-quarters 
view,  and  from  primitive  elements  generally : these 

reduce  to  primitive  elements. 

Plates  41  and  42. 

Form  and  Proportions  of  Children. 

In  very  early  infancy  there  are  but  three  and  a half 
times  the  length  of  the  head  from  crown  to  chin  in  the 
length  of  the  whole  body  (that  is,  from  crown  to  heel) ; 
at  two  years  of  age,  generally  from  four  to  five  and  one- 
fourth  heads  (4  to  5^  heads).  The  neck  is  short,  the 
shoulders  high  and  narrow,  the  back  flat,  the  abdomen 
full,  especially  in  the  region  of  the  pelvis,  the  body  long, 
the  legs  short  and  fleshy,  the  arms  short,  the  hands  and 
feet  small. 

Compare  the  length  of  the  body  with  the  length  of 
the  legs  in  Fig.  1,  PI.  41.  The  several  details  of  struc- 
ture seen  in  Figs.  1 and  2,  Pis.  41  and  42,  are  the  actual 
details  of  the  living  body,  and  are  altogether  the  actual 
details  of  each  of  the  anatomical  sections  of  the  body, 
arm,  leg,  &c.,  as  well  as  of  the  integument  forming  its 
general  outline.  A purely  muscular  outline  is  never 
seen  in  the  bodies  of  children,  the  parts  maintaining 
their  integumentary  form  in  the  various  movements  of 
the  body.  These  several  details  should  be  repeated 
in  every  drawing,  and  should  be  committed  carefully  to 
memory.  The  marks  upon  the  outline  will  direct  the 
attention  of  the  pupil  to  the  several  points  of  interest. 


Plates  43  and  44. 


Form  and  Proportions  of  Women. 

Compared  with  the  form  and  proportions  of  men,  the 
bodies  of  women  are  integumentary  as  in  children  gen- 
erally, the  head  larger  in  proportion  to  the  size  of 
the  whole  body  than  the  heads  of  men,  the  chest 
narrower,  the  back  flatter,  hips  wider,  hands  and  feet 
narrower. 

In  these  several  drawings  the  points  of  interest  are 
marked  by  outline-points  to  direct  the  attention  of  the 
student  to  the  parts  which  ought  not  to  be  omitted. 
Compare  carefully  with  the  male  figure. 

Draw  the  elementary  figure  of  p.  43  in  the  several 
positions  found  on  the  pages  of  Part  I.,  male  figures. 


Plan. 


P1.37. 


PL  38. 


A 


' 


>1.  39. 


PL.  to. 


PI  .41. 


PI. 42 . 


PI.  44. 


t 


PI  .45. 


No.  3. 


No.  I,  No.  2.  Plans  showing  the  first  and  second  planes  of  the  face.  The  features  are  included  between  the 
profile  outline  and  the  line  described  by  the  stars. * 

No.  3,  No.  4.  Bones  of  the  Head.  I.  Frontal  Bone.  2.  Parietal  Bone.  3.  Occipital  Bone.  4.  Temporal 
Bone.  5.  Malar  Bone.  6.  Superior  Maxillary  Bone.  7.  Inferior  Maxillary  Bone.  8.  Nasal  Bones.  B.  Supra 
Orbital  Eminence.  A.  Frontal  Eminence.  C.  Chin.  D,  Basilar  Border  of  Inf.  Max.  E.  Angle  of  I.  M.  F.  Ra- 
mus of  I.  M.  G.  Mastoid  process  of  Temporal  Bone.  X.  External  angular  Process  of  Temporal  Bone. 

XX.  Zygoma. 

*The  dotted  outline  is  called  the  first  plane.  The  star  line  extending  from  the  top  of  the  forehead  over  the 
several  parts  of  the  face  here  described  is  called  the  second  plane.  Compare. 


PI.  46. 


The  Muscles  of  the  Body. 

I,  2.  Occipito  Frontalis  3.  Sterno  Mastoid.  4.  Clavi- 
cular limb  of  Sterno  Mastoid.  5.  Clavicular  limb  of  Tra- 
pezius II.  Acromial  limb  of  Trapezius.  6.  Splenius 
7.  Levator  Anguli  Scapulae.  8.  Scalenus  Posticus. 
9.  Scalenus  Anticus.  10.  Omo-Hyoid.  12  Sterno 
Hyoid.  13.  Muscles  of  the  Sub  Max.  region,  (x. 
Os.  hyoides.)  14.  Masseter.  i5.  Temporal  Muscles. 
(16.  Clavicle.)  (17  Acromial  end  of  the  Spine  of  the 
Scapula.)  18.  Pectoral  is  Major,  a,  a.  Inferior  border. 

19.  Deltoid,  a.  Clavicular  limb.  b.  Scapular  limb. 

20.  Scapular  Muscles.  21.  Biceps. 

22.  Brachialis  Anticus. 

23.  Outer  limb  of  Triceps. 

24.  Latissimus  Dorsi. 

25.  Serratus  Magnus. 

26.  Obliquus  Externus. 

27.  Ensiform  Cartilage. 

28.  Epigastric  Section.  27. — / 

29.  Supraumbilical  Section. 

30.  Umbilical  Section. 

31.  Femoral  Ligament. 

32.  Pubes. 

33.  Part  of  Sart-mus.  „ 

34.  Lumbar  Region. 

35.  Tensor  Vaginae  Femoris. 

36.  Gluteus  Medius. 

37.  Gluteus  Maximus.  £9.~ 

38.  Head  of  Femur. 

39.  Vastus  Externus. 

40.  Rectus,  a Tendon  of  R.  j 

41.  Vastus  Internus. 

42.  Fascia  Lata. 

43.  Patella. 

44.  Tendon  of  Patella. 

45.  Biceps. 

46.  Heads  of  Gastrocnemius. 

47.  Gastrocnemius.  J9 

48.  Peroneus. 

49.  Soleus. 

50.  Tibialis  Anticus. 

51.  Tendo  Achillis. 

52.  Muscles  of  the  Toes. 

53.  Outer  Ankle. 

54.  Tendons. 

55.  Extensor. 


41- 


vil. 


17. 


18. 


«P- 


26.  / 


a.  1.9.  b 


\ 21. 


24 


-34. 


m 


37. 


\ 


39. 


42. 


45. 


-46. 


7-41 


50: 


V, 


49 


52.- 


51 


54. 


PI.  47. 


12. 

13. 

15. 

14. 

16. 

17. 

18. 

19. 

20. 
21. 
22. 
23 

24. 

25. 
a. 

26. 

27. 

and 

28. 

29. 

30. 


■ Acromial  limb  of  Deltoid. 
Occipital  limb  of  Occipio 
Frontalis  murde. 

T rapezius.  J C 

Deltoid. 

Latissimus  Dorsi. 

Teres  Major. 

Teres  Minor.  J 4-. 

Infra  Spinatus. 

Spine  of  Scapula. 

Lumbar  Muscles. 

Flank  Muscles  (Page  10a, 
No.  26.) 

Inner. 

Outer  limb  of  Triceps. 
Common  Tendon  of  limbs 
of  T riceps. 

Biceps. 

Brachialis  Anticus. 
Gluteus  Maximus,  b,  b,  a. 
G.  Medius. 

Head  of  Femur. 

Vastus  Externus. 
Semitendinosus 
Biceps. 

Semi-membranosus. 

Part  of  Adductor  Magnus 
Gracilis. 

Gastrocnemius. 

Inner  limb. 

Soleus. 

Common  Tendon  of  Gas- 
trocnemius. 

Soleus. 

Tendo  Achillis. 

Part  of  Peroneus. 

Outer  Ankle. 


I 


P1.48. 


I.  Sterno  Mastoid.  2.  Clavicular  limb.  3.  Clavicular  limb  of  Trapezius.  4.  Clavicle.  5,  Acromial  limb  of 
Deltoid.  6.  Clavicular  limb  of  Deltoid.  7.  Pectoralis  Major.  8.  Clavicular  limb  of  Pectorali§  Major.  9.  Scapular 
Muscles.  10.  Serratus.  II.  Sternum.  12.  Ensiform  Cartilage.  13.  Epigastric  Section.  14.  Supra  Umbilical 
Section.  15  Umbilical  Section.  16.  Umbilicus.  17.  Lower  part  of  the  Cartilage  of  the  Ribs  over  which  passes 
the  External  Oblique  Muscle.  A,  16.  Flank  Muscles.  18.  Pubes.  19.  Tensor  Vaginae  Femoris.  20.  Rectus. 
21.  Vastus  Externus.  22.  Head  of  Femur.  23.  Vastus  Internus.  24.  Tendon  of  Rectus.  25.  Patella.  26.  Liga- 
ment of  Patella.  27.  Knee  Section.  28.  Adductor  Muscles.  29.  Sartorius.  30.  Tibia.  31.  Gastrocnemius, 
Inner  limb.  32.  Soleus.  33,  Tibialis  Anticus.  34.  Peroneus.  35.  Soleus,  outer  part. 


